MIXTURES OF HYDROCARBONS, BEESWAX, AND SPERMACETI 105 would achieve the best results on most types of hair. The strength of the solutions would vary accord- ing to the textures ot hair to be waved, and whereas Nessler segre- gated hair into ten main categories today it is the .general practice to subdivide hair into coarse, medium, and fine, and bleached and dyed. Since it would be impractical for a beautician to have too many solu- tions for the purpose of waving hair, most. manufacturers today confine their solutions to three strengths at the most, and the operator who gives the wave normally test curls the hair with these three solutions if she is not sure of the texture and type. Again going back to the history of this subject--in 1928, Mayer of Germany, developed what is now called the croquignole system of permanent waving that is, winding the hair from the points to the roots on croquignole curlers. Croquignole curiers differ from spiral curiers in that they are thin in the center and gradually thicken toward the ends. This system was introduced in the United States soon thereafter, and like anything new which has merit-- and particularly because it gave extreme ease of operation and ap- plication on the part of beauty shop owners and operators--it spread rapidly through the country. In fact, within seven years it replaced spiral waving up to 98%. Schools, today, do not teach the spiral sys- tem of waving. They concentrate mainly on the point-to-root system which is the basis of machine type waves, machineless type waves, and the new cold waves. We should note that with the be- ginning of the machineless wave-- and byøthis'I mean the application of chemieally produced heat--per- manent waving companies were be- ginning to set up research depart- ments on a small scale, since it re- quired chemical ingenuity and skill to produce proper mixtures for the correct heat in chemical heating pads. Heretofore, engineers were required to make up permanent wav- ing machines, with their intricate heaters and timing mechanisms, but any Tom, Dick, or Harry could mix up a batch of solution in his bath- tub for the purpose of waving hair, and many of the large manufacturers never employed a chemist to mix their solutions and never had any controls on their final results. For instance, such things as per- man•nt waving solutions--particu- larly the ones containing sulfites, which lost their strength very rap- idly due to oxidation--were never attributed to the cause of failures of waves once the solutions reached the beauty shops. Since some of these firms did not employ chemists, who could protect by means of chemicals the loss of strength due to oxidation, they blamed failures upon the incompetence of the operator using their solutions. While it is true that the operators and their skill determine the success of the permanent wa,ee, if the solutions are not up to par even the best operator and artist cannot give a successful wave. It is also true that the best

106 ß brains in the chemical field today, by making the best possible perma- nent waving solutions, cannot hope to obtain results in the b. eauty shops unless the operators are co•npetent and give a proper wave according to instructions. Many manufac- turers are blamed 'for failures which are the fault of the operators. Machineless waving, as waving is known when chemical pads are •sect for heating, has gained greatly in favor and is today one of the three leading methods of waving'hair. As was the case when croquignole first came to the market, stronger solu- tions had to be found which would wave the hair under the reduced heats prevailing in chemical pads, as against the higher heats gener- ated by a machi ne. Leaders of the industry fully real- ized tha•: solutions could be made just so strong and no more, because the hair it. self would be attacked and rather than obtaining a perman- ent wave the hair would be de- stroyed. However, some of the smaller ar.d irresponsible manufac- turers, who sold their solution on the basis that it would give a strong curl, regardless of the effect upon the hair, flooded the market with strong solutions, claiming that they were actually better for the hair because they contained certain oils. Today most permanent wave solutions contain various kinds of soluble oils for the purpose of pro- tecting the hair fram the harsh chemicals prevalent in most solu- tions and it is noteworthy that somewhat of a race devdloped when JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS one manufacturer would put in more oil, then find he needed more sulfite ind other chemicals, only to find he needed more oil and then again more sulfite. Actually, some of the thick, cream solutions today are materially stronger than is required for normal waving operations, and whereas we have seen that some of these thick, cream 'solutions seems to give a de- cent appearance, in three or four weeks' time the hair will look like straw. During the recent war, the cold waving system of permanent waving was developec•. The original com- plex machinery which was used had passed hydrogen sulfite through curling rods. However, this type of waving received a setback when a beauty shop customer died from blood poisoning, which was gener- ally attributed to the use of hydro- gen sulfite. This setback, however, did not halt progress and new cold waving solutions were introduced on the market containing ammonium thioglycolate. The introduction of cold waving necessitated a com- pletely new approach to permanent waving The beauty shop operator had to unlearn nearly everything she had learned in the last 20 years. The hair could not be stretched, and had to be carefully rinsed out with neutralizing solution to stop the action of the ammonium thioglycol- ate. Cold waving became very popular during the war, but it is now on a decline due to certain factors that are not connected with the technical aspects, or the results of