108 JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE in particular, the reader is referred to our previous publications (1-3) and references therein. The older generation of Emirati men and women still use this traditional eye cosmetic for a variety of reasons: eye beautification, tradition, protection against the "evil eye," and as an ethnic medical remedy for eye strain/pain/soreness. In general, it is used more in the villages than in the urban areas of the DAE, and in the former it is still used on (very) young children as a perceived protection from the "evil eye"/the "evil one." Also, Bedu men wear it as a protection against the fierce desert sun. However, most of the middle-aged and younger generations of urban-living Emirati females now use the readily available modern eye pencils. Amongst the expatriates of the DAE, kohl is still used by (predominantly middle-aged) Indian ladies and also by Pakistani and Afghani middle-aged men. In our prior studies on the kohls of Oman, Abu Dhabi city, and Egypt (Cairo) (1-3), we found the toxic element lead (usually as the compound lead sulfide, PbS) to be present in some of the samples. The biohazards of lead are well known and were documented in the first century BCE by Vitruvius (4) and, as one example of several recent such studies, in a comprehensive study of its negative effects on the intellectual abilities of young children (5). Presented here, as part of our ongoing study into the presence of lead in Middle Eastern kohls, is a study of the availability and chemical composition of them in the emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quwain, Ras Al-Khaimah (RAK), and Fujairah. MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS The souks (local markets) of Dubai, Sharjah and Ajman were all visited several times and were very thoroughly investigated for the availability of traditional eye cosmetics (kohls). A later visit to the most remote (north) emirate of Ras Al-Khaimah (RAK), via the smallest emirate of Umm Al-Quwain, was sufficient to allow a reasonably thorough investigation of the main souk of RAK. However, the short time spent in Umm Al-Quwain was only sufficient for a limited investigation in its main shopping area. Unfortunately the final emirate, Fujairah, could not be visited by us and a "selection" of the available kohls in the Fujairah city souk was purchased by a colleague at a slightly later date. Initially all available kohl samples were purchased, but in our later souk visits only those kohl samples not seen before in this study were purchased, but with a careful record being made of the details of these "seen only" samples. The price per kohl sample, after bargaining, was usually between 1 and 5 dirhams (where 5 .6 dirhams was 1 GBP and where 3.5 dirhams was 1 US$), but occasionally the price was 10, 15, 20, or even 30 dirhams. For the six emirates investigated, the numbers of kohl samples purchased and "seen only" were: Dubai, 33 purchased and 1 more seen Sharjah, 23 purchased and 9 more seen Ajman, 7 purchased Umm Al-Quwain, 3 purchased and 4 more seen RAK, 9 purchased and 16 more seen Fujairah, 5 (a "selection") purchased. Thus, overall, 80 samples were purchased and a further 30 "seen only." Of these 80 purchased samples it was found that 5 3 were observably different the remaining 27 were identical to one of these 5 3 samples. Furthermore, on later com-

AVAILABILITY AND COMPOSITION OF "KOHLS" 109 parison of these 53 samples with the kohl samples previously studied by us (1-3), it was found that 19 of them had been analyzed in these prior studies. It had been decided by us that if a kohl sample's name, origin, and container were all found to be identical to those of a sample already purchased (i.e., in this study) or already analyzed (i.e., in one of our previous publications), then we would assume that the samples had identical chemical compositions. However, as a check on this (i.e., consistency of composition with variation of locations of purchase), it was decided to analyze eight of the 19 samples already done by us in previous studies. Thus a total of 42 (34 plus 8) kohl samples were examined by the analytical techniques of X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with an attached energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) microana- lyzer. X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION (XRPD) For XRPD, the kohl samples were, where necessary, ground to a powder and then mounted in an aluminum holder. Diffraction data were collected using a Siemens D500 X-ray diffractometer operating with CuKa. radiation. A step scan, using a step size of 0.0256 degree and a time of 1 s/step, was done over a 2-theta range of 8-70 degrees for each of the samples. These data sets were then used to determine the major and minor components (phases) present in the samples by comparing the obtained data to the reference data in the 2000 JCPDS Qoint Committee for Powder Diffraction Standards) database. The major phase was usually defined to be that phase which had a presence estimated to be �90% any variation from this percentage is mentioned in the later Results section. The minor phases given in parentheses (in Tables I and II) are those estimated to be :::::::5% of the sample. Also, each group of minor phases are listed in these tables in decreasing order of their estimated percentage presence. Results for the 34 samples not seen before are given in Table I, and those for the eight samples re-analyzed (i.e., seen and analyzed by us before, but selected to be checked for consistency of composition for different locations of purchase) are given in Table II along with all relevant previous-study results. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM) For SEM EDX, each sample was mounted on an aluminum stub using an adhesive carbon tab. It was then examined in a JEOL JSM 5 300 L V SEM with an attached Rontec EDX microanalyzer. This L V (low vacuum) SEM is designed so that the specimen chamber is differentially evacuated to low vacuum. The electric charge on the specimen is neutralized, thus allowing nonconductive specimens to be studied without coating. Elements lighter than carbon (i.e., Z ::::=::: 5) cannot be detected using this equipment. Detection was qualitative, and the element peaks that were only just above the back- ground are given in brackets in Tables I and II. RESULTS The results, including both chemical composition and availability, are given in Tables I and II. The kohl samples are listed in alphabetical order of their names (or translated