INSECT FATS FOR COSMETICS 201 formulation. The data indicate that insect fats contain a large fraction of FFAs and phospho- lipids which will need to be removed by thorough refi ning processes to make them more suitable for cosmetics applications. Extraction of insect biomass needs to be performed cost-effectively and green processes (e.g., pressing) should be implemented where possible. Finally, all biomass derived from insects (fats, proteins, and chitin) needs to be valorized in industrial applications. If, in addition, a drastic upscaling of capacity (e.g., stacking) and reduction in breeding costs (e.g., by using waste streams as insect feed) is achieved then industrial implementation of insects becomes feasible and may prove a viable sector in a future circular economy. As an example of the use of insects in such a circular economy we considered the applica- tion of insect fats in a hand cream that serves as a model system for a typical oil-in-water emulsion. Taken together the results of the physicochemical and stability tests, demon- strate that insect fats (especially cricket and the locust, when properly discolored) are suitable for leave-on cosmetic preparations, at least from a physicochemical point of view. BSF fats have a fatty acid profi le that is similar to coconut oil and palm kernel oil (29). These oils are frequently used in cosmetics applications e.g., as a starting material for preparation of surfactants (e.g., Amillite GCS-11). Therefore it can be envisaged that BSF fats can be used for similar applications as these plant materials. However, a full toxico- logical assessment needs to be performed, before considering actual implementation. This also includes an investigation of the potential presence of undesired contaminants such as pesticides and residual solvents. In conclusion, our data indicate that insects can be implemented as an alternative source for fats that are useable for cosmetic applications. Depending on the fatty acid profi le of the insect fats, different applications can be envisaged. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to Claude Capdepon from Rousselot NV for providing them with gelatin fi lms. The authors thank Rob Van Ende and Christof Clauwaert for their help in the lab. REFERENCES (1) O. K. S hortall, S. Raman, and K. Millar, Are plants the new oil? Responsible innovation, biorefi ning and multipurpose agriculture, Energy Policy, 86, 360–368 (2015). (2) E. B. F itzherbert, M. J. Struebig, A. Morel, F. Danielsen, C. A. Brühl, P. F. Donald, and B. Phalan, How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity? Trends Ecol. Evol., 23(10), 538–545 (2008). (3) T. M. Fa yle, E. C. Turner, and J. L. Snaddon, Oil palm expansion into rain forest greatly reduces ant biodiversity in canopy, epiphytes and leaf-litter, Basic Appl. Ecol., 11, 337–345 (2010). (4) M. J. M. Senior, K. C. Hamer, and S. Bottrell, Trait-dependent declines of species following conversion of tropical forest to oil palm plantations, Biodivers. Conserv., 184, 414–423 (2013). (5) J. A. Fo ley, N. Ramankutty, K. A. Brauman, E. S. Cassidy, J. S. Gerber, M. Johnston, N. D. Mueller, C. O’Connell, D. K. Ray, P. C. West, C. Balzer, E. M. Bennett, S. R. Carpenter, J. Hill, C. Monfreda, S. Polasky, J. Rockström, J. Sheehan, S. Siebert, D. Timlan, and D. P. M. Zaks, Solutions for a cultivated planet, Nature, 478, 337–342 (2011). (6) D. Piment el, A. Marklein, M. A. Toth, M. N. Karpoff, G. S. Paul, R. McCormack, J. Kyriazis, and T. Krueger, Food versus biofuels: environmental and economic costs, Hum. Ecol., 37(1), 1–12 (2009). (7) A. van Hu is, J. Van Itterbeeck, H. Klunder, E. Mertens, A. Halloran, G. Muir, and P. Vantomme, FAO Forestry Paper 171. Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. ISBN 978-92-5-107595 (2013).

JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE 202 (8) S. Diener , C. Zurbrügg, F. R. Gutiérrez, D. H. Nguyen, A. Morel, T. Koottatep, and K. Tockner, “Black soldier fl y larvae for organic waste treatment—prospects and constraints,” in Proceedings of the Waste- Safe 2011—2nd International Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Developing Countries. Khulna, Bangladesh, ISBN: 978-984-33-2705-5 (2011). (9) H. Cičková, L. G. Newton, C. R. Lacy, and M. Kozánek, The use of fl y larvae for organic waste treatment, Waste Manage., 35, 68–80 (2015). (10) Q. Li, L. Zhen g, Y. Hou, S. Yang, and Z. Yu, Insect fat, a promising resource for biodiesel, J Phylogenetics Evol Biol S2:001. doi:10.4172/2157-7463.S2-001. (2011). (11) L. Zheng, Q. L i, J. Zhang, and Z. Yu, Double the biodiesel yield: rearing black soldier fl y larvae, Hermetia illucens, on solid residual fraction of restaurant waste after grease extraction for biodiesel pro- duction, Renewable Energy, 41, 75–79 (2012). (12) H. K. V. Prash anth and R. N. Tharanathan, Chitin/chitosan: modifi cations and their unlimited application potential—an overview, Trends Food Sci. Technol., 18, 117–131 (2007). (13) G. R. DeFoliar t, Insect fatty acids: similar to those of poultry and fi sh in their degree of unsaturation, but higher in the polyunsaturates, Food Insects Newsl., 4, 1–4 (1991). (14) H. A. C. Le Po ole, Natural Oils and Fats Multifunctional Ingredients for Skin Care (Dekker, Wormerveer, The Netherlands, 1994), pp. 47–56. (15) G. N. Stamatas , J. de Sterke, M. Hauser, O. von Stetten, and A. van der Pol, Lipid uptake and skin occlusion following topical application of oils on adult and infant skin, J. Dermatol. Sci., 50(2), 135–142 (2008). (16) J. Alander, “C osmetics” in Vegetable Oils and Fats (Aarhuskarlshamn, Karlshamn, Sweden, 2007), pp. 214–234. (17) FAVV Gemeensch appelijk advies SciCom 14-2014 en HGR Nr. 9160, Food safety aspects of insects intended for human consumption (SHC 9160) (report of the FASFC - Sci Com 2014/04) (2014). (18) D. C. Sheppard , J. K. Tomberlin, J. A. Joyce, B. C. Kiser, and S. M. Sumner, Rearing methods for the black soldier fl y (Diptera: Stratiomydae), J. Med. Entomol., 39(4), 695–698 (2002). (19) M. A. Kaluzny, L. A. Duncan, M. V. Merritt, and D. E. Epps, Rapid separation of lipid classes in high yield and purity using bounded phase columns, J. Lipid Res., 26, 135–140 (1985). (20) S. O’Keefe, “F at characterization,” in Food Analysis, 4th Ed. (Springer, New York, 2003), pp. 239–260. (21) European Pharm acopoeia 7.0, Effi cacy of antimicrobial preservation. In: Europeann Pharmacopoeia volume 7.0, pp. 505–506 (01/2011:50103). (22) T. Dietz, Basi c properties of cosmetic oils and their relevance to emulsion preparations, SÖFW J., 125, 7 (1999). (23) F. R. van de Vo ort, J. Sedman, and J. Russin, Lipid analysis by vibrational spectroscopy, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 103, 815–840 (2001). (24) D. A. Tzompa-So sa, L. Yi, H. J. F. van Valenberg, M. A. J. S. Boekel, and C. M. M. Lakemond, Insect lipid profi le: aqueous versus organic solvent-based extraction methods, Food Res. Int., 62, 1087–1094 (2004). (25) A. Zielińska and I. Nowak, Fatty acids in vegetable oils and their importance in cosmetic industry, Chemik, 68(2), 103–110 (2004). (26) P. G. Green, R. H. Guy, and J. Hadgraft, In vitro and in vivo enhancement of skin permeation with oleic and lauric acids, Int. J. Pharm., 48, 103–111 (1988). (27) X. Liu, X. Chenn, H. Wang, Q. Yang, K. Ur Rehman, W. Li, M. Cai, Q. Li, L. Mazza, J. Zhang, Z. Yu, and L. Zheng, Dynamic changes of nutrient composition throughout the entire life cycle of black soldier fl y, PLOS One, 12(8), e0182601 (2017). (28) N. Akhtar, Q. Adna n, M. Ahmad, A. Madni, and M. S. Bakhsh, Evaluation of basic properties of maca- damia nut oil, Gomal Univ. J. Res., 22, 21–27 (2006). (29) V. Dubois, S. Breto n, M. Linder, J. Fanni, and M. Parmentier, Fatty acid profi les of 80 vegetable oils with regard to their nutritional potential, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 109, 710–730 (2007).