AVAILABILITY AND COMPOSITION OF "KOHLS" 117 turnover time. Lead in the bone may contribute up to 50% of blood lead. During pregnancy and lactation, mobilization of lead from maternal bone is a cause for concern. Strong correlations between maternal and umbilical cord blood lead levels demonstrate that lead is transferred from the mother to the fetus (13 ). Cumulative effects of low levels of lead exposure in utero and after birth can have similar detrimental effects. An increase in the maternal-blood lead level may contribute to a reduction in gestation period and low birthweight. The fetal brain may also be particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of lead because of the immaturity of the blood-brain barrier. In an adult population, the most critical adverse effect of lead is probably hypertension. Other toxic effects of concern are peripheral neuropathy, lead-induced anemia, and lead nephropathy. In a previous publication (3) we discussed galena's (lead sulfide, PbS) particle size with respect to the associated kohl powder being "shiny" or "matte" in texture and with respect to its rate of dissolution in gastric fluid. It was found by us that at a mean particle size for galena of about 10 µm, the kohl powder (with galena as the major phase) became totally matte in texture. It had previously been found (12) that reducing the particle size of galena leads to a significant increase in its rate of dissolution (in gastric fluid). So, in a very simplistic toxicology sense, it can be said: "shiny is good and matte is bad" (as the latter would be much more easily dissolved in gastric fluid than the former, with the former perhaps going straight through the body with minimum absorption and negligible toxicity). Thus in Tables I and II we have stated if the powder is "shiny" or "matte" in texture when galena is the listed major phase. In Table I only one such sample is matte, but in Table II six are matte in texture. While the Table I sample "Zikra Al Haramain" is available in three of the six emirates studied here, it is also very expensive (30 dirhams) and so is therefore unlikely to be bought extensively by the local populace. However, the six such samples in Table II have one available in two, four in three, and one in all six emirates, with their prices ranging from 1 to 4 dirhams. Thus these six samples are, unfortunately, much more likely to be purchased extensively by the local populace and so could give rise to significant lead toxicity if used in such a way that adsorption can readily occur (e.g., if used on the conjunctiva of the eye). In view of all the above-mentioned toxic effects and the still widespread use of kohls in at least parts of the present-day Middle East, it follows that children who have a lead-based kohl regularly applied to them are at risk of serious and fatal toxicities of the nervous system and also to more subtle, subclinical, long-term effects. WRITTEN INFORMATION ON CONTAINER PACKAGING Eleven of the samples listed in Tables I and II have detailed (i.e., quantitative "contents data" provided with the sample (usually on an enclosed leaflet). Table III lists this detailed "contents data," our best translations/interpretations, and the (most likely) associated chemical/mineral names. There are still some "formula names" that we have been unable to translate and others with a degree of uncertainty in their translation (i.e., those with a "?" added). Most of the major phases found match a "formula name" in the "contents data," usually one with a high given percentage. Additionally, there are six more samples where qualitative "contents data" are given. For three of these samples, the information given is vague: (made with) "almonds" (trans-

Table III Kohl Samples That Had (quantitative) "Contents Data" Available XRPD major XRPD minor Contents Sample name Made in in phase phase(s) data Table I samQles: "Budhia Surma" ("No. India Sharjah Galena Camphor Filfile-Sufed 7 Black Surma") (Bombay) (Anglesite) Kibabeh (Cerussite) Kafoor Shab-E-Yama Ni Surma Murkwarid Sankha "Khojati ® India Dubai/Sharjah/Ras Amorphous (Paraffin wax) Cow's ghee Mumtaz ® Deluxe, (Bombay) Al-Khaimah carbon Coconut oil Kaja!. The Eye Tel Definer" Sufoof-e-Syah Waxy base "Khojati ® Toop India Sharjah Amorphous (Paraffin wax) S ufoof-e-syah Anjan ®" (Bombay) carbon Beeswax Bhimseni Kafoor Cow's ghee Ark Phudina "Surma Harmain Pakistan Sharjah/Dubai Galena (Anglesite) Surma Black Al-Sherfain" (Karachi) (Cerussite)/ Kafe Darya "Cold" /"Surma (Anglesite) Phitakari Pure Harmain Kafoor Bhim Seni Al-Sherfain" "Hot" Translation/ (%) interpretation 0.1% "White pepper" 0.1% " '?' Pepper" 25.0% Camphor 0.2% "Lucky evening"? 74.0% Kohl 0.2% "Very dark '?' " 0.4% Conch shell 17.000% Cow's ghee 24.000% Coconut oil 2.000% (An) Oil 6.000% "Black from oil of almond" 51.00% Wax 1.00% "Black from oil of almond" 40.00% Beeswax 39.00% Camphor 15.00% Cow's ghee 5.00% Extract of mint 70% Black kohl 15% Unknown 13% "Pure potassium"? 2% Camphor (Most likely) Chemical/mineral name A white pepper A pepper Camphor Unknown Galena Unknown Calcite A clear butter Coconut oil (An) Oil Amorphous carbon Wax Amorphous carbon Beeswax Camphor A clear butter Extract of mint Galena Unknown A potassium salt? Camphor ,...... ,...... 00 ._ 0 � � 0 1--rj n 0 er, � tI1 n er, tI1 n tI1