TALKING OF PERFUMES AGAIN We can safely say that some degree of fixation of certain odorous mole- cules in a mixture can be accomplished, although we must, of course, be reasonable in our definition of the word fixation. Benzyl benzoate, decried in certain quarters, is a fixative, but it is, perhaps, not too difficult, with the requirements already mentioned, to indicate other and more effective sub- stances. Before ending, I must forestall the critics who will inevitably ask "how do you account for the fact that non-polar substances can also act as fixatives?" One could quote the well-known example of paraffin wax in this connection. If volatile solvents such as acetone, ethyl, butyl, and amyl acetates are brushed on to paintwork they are volatilised before adequate softening of the paint takes place. If a few per cent of paraffin wax is added to the stripping solvent, then the rate of solvent loss is inhibited to such a degree that the paint is dissolved or softened and may readily be removed. This could be quite a poser, but one might draw on the experience of certain workers who have described the addition compounds of urea with organic substances. Solid urea complexes with many chemicals were found and whilst these substances include ketones, acids, alcohols and esters, the same effects were found for many paraffins, including normal straight chain mem- bers. Urea apparently lends itself to the isolation and •xamination of its complexes, and whilst other complexes with paraffin may be difficult to investigate, their presence, on the ground of hydrogen bonding, should not be ignored. This particular effect may also account for the fact that the stearoptene bodies of essential oils are in themselves fixatives. Of course, the particular "fixing" effect of paraffin wax in solvents may be due in part to a sealing of the surface. A single perfume may well contain alcohols, esters, ketones, ethers, aldehydes, amines and many more types of chemicals, their structure com- plicated by isomerisation, unsaturation, branched-chain and a host of other considerations. Hence a forecast of the final attraction of the individual molecules and the effect upon vapour pressure would indeed be difficult to make. The problems of fixation might, to some extent, be compared to the problems of fractional distillation, in reverse. The successful lowering of the vapour pressure of one ingredient may well result in an increased rate of vapour release in a second. It is a common experience to find that a substance with a strong odour can only be used in traces in some mixtures and yet in a second mixture it may be added in fairly large quantities without undue prominence. Thus we are unable to select or recommend a universal fixative. The constituents of the mixture in question will decide the type of fixative required, and here again the perfumer comes into his own. That hydrogen bonding will have effects upon the ultimate odour of the perfume is obvious and quite another story. Further, it must be clearly realised that we have discussed fixation as a means of retarding odour loss from a liquid. The final effects upon the olfactory nerves must be considered from completely 201

JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS different angles, and, of course, the forces of attraction in the gaseous state cannot be compared to those existing in the liquid state. IN CONCLUSION It is regrettable that such expressions as "creative genius," "inspira- tion," and similar expressions have figured so little in this talk, but it must be remembered that these are subjective and the aim of this talk has been strictly objective, that is to describe some of the products used by the perfumers, the manner in which they are used and, to some extent, the requirements and training of a perfumer. If the talk has been disconnected and given from a personal view, then that is inevitable when "talking of perfumes." PERFUMERY AND COSMETICS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN INDIA By T. H. CRAWFORD and T. S. NAGARAJAN, B.Sc.* It is not intended in this Paper to touch on what might be called the Western type of perfumery and cosmetics in India, which are undoubtedly used in increasing quantities by Indian women. The writers feel they should confine themselves to the products which have been used since earlier days by the Indian population, still comparatively untouched by Western habits in its home life. At this stage it should be mentioned that the writers' experience has been mostly with South India, where the people are much more orthodox in their religious and private lives than elsewhere. It must always be remembered that India is a vast country, and the habits and customs of the society lady of cosmopolitan Bombay are as different from those of the middle-class South-Indian housewife as are, for example, those of a Parisian lady of fashion and of a Balkan farmer's wife. Almost the earliest use of perfumery in India occurred at the ceremonial fires used in religious rituals. During some of these ceremonies fires of fragrant woods were lighted at the four cardinal points, and the flames were fed with a consecrated ointment. Around the fire would be scattered a scented herb, possibly Rusa or Ginger Grass. It is known that some 2,000 years ago Indian ladies stained their feet, a custom which still prevails among some communities to-day. The use of aromatics in religious cere- monies, particularly in the Hindu religion, is still as widespread as in early times, and the preparation of aromatics for use in these ceremonies has been a trade from time immemorial. * Best & Co. Ltd., Soap Factory, Ma[dras, S. India. 202