JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS different angles, and, of course, the forces of attraction in the gaseous state cannot be compared to those existing in the liquid state. IN CONCLUSION It is regrettable that such expressions as "creative genius," "inspira- tion," and similar expressions have figured so little in this talk, but it must be remembered that these are subjective and the aim of this talk has been strictly objective, that is to describe some of the products used by the perfumers, the manner in which they are used and, to some extent, the requirements and training of a perfumer. If the talk has been disconnected and given from a personal view, then that is inevitable when "talking of perfumes." PERFUMERY AND COSMETICS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN INDIA By T. H. CRAWFORD and T. S. NAGARAJAN, B.Sc.* It is not intended in this Paper to touch on what might be called the Western type of perfumery and cosmetics in India, which are undoubtedly used in increasing quantities by Indian women. The writers feel they should confine themselves to the products which have been used since earlier days by the Indian population, still comparatively untouched by Western habits in its home life. At this stage it should be mentioned that the writers' experience has been mostly with South India, where the people are much more orthodox in their religious and private lives than elsewhere. It must always be remembered that India is a vast country, and the habits and customs of the society lady of cosmopolitan Bombay are as different from those of the middle-class South-Indian housewife as are, for example, those of a Parisian lady of fashion and of a Balkan farmer's wife. Almost the earliest use of perfumery in India occurred at the ceremonial fires used in religious rituals. During some of these ceremonies fires of fragrant woods were lighted at the four cardinal points, and the flames were fed with a consecrated ointment. Around the fire would be scattered a scented herb, possibly Rusa or Ginger Grass. It is known that some 2,000 years ago Indian ladies stained their feet, a custom which still prevails among some communities to-day. The use of aromatics in religious cere- monies, particularly in the Hindu religion, is still as widespread as in early times, and the preparation of aromatics for use in these ceremonies has been a trade from time immemorial. * Best & Co. Ltd., Soap Factory, Ma[dras, S. India. 202

PERFUMERY AND COSMETICS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN INDIA Legend has it that attar of roses was a discovery of Noor Jeha, the wife of the Moghul Emperor Jehangir, whose son--Shah Jehan--will live in history as the builder of the Taj Mahal. It is told how Noor Jehan was accustomed to having fresh rose-petals strewn in her bath, and that one day she observed on the surface of the bath-water a thin, oily film which had a delightful fragrance. The story goes on that she had the oil extracted and that this was the origin of attar of roses. No claim is made here for the authenticity of this story, but it does seem more pleasant to swallow than a newspaper story, perhaps, that some hirsute comrade from the other side of the Iron Curtain had invented it as part of the 5-year plan ! Sandalwood is, of course, one of the most important aromatics of India, and it has always played a very considerable part in Indian life. Sandalwood oil had always been greatly valued as an astringent, and was often taken internally as a diuretic. It has been used in many forms: sometimes the wood was burned because of its fragrant smoke it was also used in the form of an oil or a paste. Ceremonial bathing for purification purposes played a great part in ancient Indian life, and the ablutions of the wealthy were often enriched by the addition of sandalwood extracts. To-day, the oil-bath is still a regular feature in Indian life, particularly with South Indians. The oil normally used may be mustard oil, coconut oil or gingelly oil, generally dependent on its availability and cheapness. It is believed that Pliny referred to Til (or gingelly) oil imported into Europe from the East. The Indian considers that the oil-bath, in addition to being a skin-tonic, refreshes him physically and mentally. After the oil-bath a further washing takes place, generally using soapnut powder. Soapnuts are readily available in South India, and the housewife has these ground into powder at the nearest mill. These small mills, which generally have a number of grinding machines, grind up such commodities, in addition to soapnuts, as rice, turmeric and other spices for cooking purposes. The Hindu is a great lover of perfumes, particularly at ceremonials and functions. At marriages, in addition to incense, sandalwood and other perfumes are liberally dispersed in the marriage hall to add to the pleasant- ness of the proceedings. Muslims have always been great lovers of perfumes, and at ceremonies use incense composed, amongst other things, of benzoin, aloes, sandalwood and patchouli. It used to be a common custom for a Muslim bride to be presented with a Singardan or toilet bag containing a phial of attar of roses, a rose-water bottle, a box of spices, soorma for blackening the eyelids, kohl for darkening eyelashes, comb, mirror and a pan-dan. Pan-dans are still in wide use to-day: these are boxes, often of great beauty and value, containing pan leaves and spices for chewing. The pan leaf (Piper betel) is rolled with the spices and, when chewed, has a very strong astringent action on the mouth. It is most usually chewed after meals: a Muslim hostess will roll pan leaves 203