38 JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE
threshold that leads to excessive growth of algae and cyanobacteria, avoiding the effects of
eutrophication.
Whilst few companies today track water footprint, we can assume that it will come into
focus once carbon foot printing is more routine and reporting required. A review of the
relative water footprint of different crops can be found in the article of Mekonnen and
Hoekstra [22]. Rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns directly impact the
viability and yields of naturals used by the fragrance industry recurrent droughts in South
Africa and an extended drought (2023–24) in South America have already led to a loss of
production, with the 2024 orange crop in Brazil one of the smallest since the 1980s. A
prolonged dry period in Indonesia during 2023–24 has impacted patchouli oil availability.
The notion that changing weather patterns will have a significant future impact has been
highlighted in the World Economic Forum Global Risk Analysis 2025 [23] based on a
survey of over 900 experts. They estimate that in 2035, 10 years from now, the highest
risks are all environmental: Extreme weather events, Critical changes to Earth systems,
Biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse, and natural resources shortage.
AIR POLLUTION
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) emitted from fragrance containing products can
contribute to indoor and outdoor environmental pollution. In the USA, The California Air
Resources Board (CARB) sets restrictions with Consumer Products Regulations covering
a range of personal care and home care product categories to reduce outdoor pollution.
The initial driver for the legislation was the connection between VOCs, ozone and smog
impacting California. The Regulations are concerned with restricting volatiles with a
vapour pressure of 0.1mmHg at 20°C, and currently fragrances have benefitted from
a number of exemptions nevertheless, many manufacturers of Air Care products have
reformulated some products to use low vapour pressure solvents. In general, the limits
on VOCs are increasing over time and for example, from January 2023 personal fragrance
products were restricted to a maximum of 70% VOC (i.e. ethanol), and from January 2031
this restriction becomes a maximum of 50% VOC (i.e. ethanol) up to the 10% fragrance
level [24]. This will certainly lead to reformulation of products such as body mists.
The Directive (EU) 2024/2881 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (recast),
known as the AAQD, was finalised in 2024. In the Directive, ‘ambient air’ is defined as
meaning outdoor air in the troposphere. The AAQD revises earlier Directives concerning
air pollutants and is part of the zero pollution ambition of the Green Deal. In addition to
the concerns behind the CARB legislation the Directive is concerned about the impact
of air pollutants on human health. It aligns air quality standards more closely with the
recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO) [25, 26] setting limits to be
attained by 2026 and 2030 in.particular.
More specifically the Directive includes limits for benzene (5 µg/m3 by 2026, 3.4 µg/m3
by 2030) and particulate matter, whilst earlier legislation sets limits for formaldehyde.
Furthermore, the WHO has stated “indoor air is a significant source of benzene exposure …
Benzene is a genotoxic carcinogen … no reason that the guidelines for indoor air should differ
from ambient air guidelines” [26]. A guideline (maximum) air concentration 1.7 µg/m3 was
calculated corresponding to an excess lifetime risk of leukemia of 1/100,000. Concerning
fragranced products, burning candles and incense sticks are the most problematic sources of

39 Sustainable Fragrances
benzene in an indoor environment [27] and the standard EN 16739:2015 sets out relevant
testing methodology. Candle type and fragrance composition can influence benzene
emissions, and both can be modified to reduce emissions. Concerning particulate matter
fragrance is indirectly concerned as devices such as aerosols, sprays and electric diffusers
initially emit particles (droplets) that subsequently evaporate.
DEFORESTATION AND BIODIVERSITY
These topics are often linked as deforestation leads to a loss of biodiversity, and it is sometimes
taken as a proxy for biodiversity. Concerning deforestation, the EUDR and CDP Forest
focus on the same seven commodities considered to be the most significant contributors
to deforestation [28]. Concerning the fragrance industry the most critical commodities are
palm and timber, with a more limited exposure to soy, coffee, and cocoa. For palm, the clear
standard for reducing deforestation risk is to use RSPO-MB (Roundtable on Sustainable
Palm Oil -Mass Balance), RSPO-SG (Segregated) or RSPO-IP (Identity Preserved) certified
qualities of ingredients. To certify a fragrance oil containing palm derivatives to a customer,
the fragrance manufacturing site must be certified RSPO-SCC (Supply Chain Certified) to
ensure volume traceability to MP, SG or IP standard. A growing number of palm derived
fragrance ingredients are available as RSPO-MB certified. At this moment, the RSPO
standards do not match the EUDR requirements, where no deforestation before 2020 must
be documented based on geo-localisation of the area of cultivation via a DDS (Due Diligence
Statement). It can be expected that RSPO will adapt to provide options meeting the EUDR
requirements to obtain a reference number and security token confirming successful
completion of the DDS, permitting import into the EU. Given the significant number of
palm derivates used by the fragrance industry and within the scope of EUDR (Annex 1)
it would have been challenging to be fully compliant by 30th December 2024 when the
Regulation was due to be applied, and in the face of intense lobbying the Commission
proposed a 12 month delay, which has been confirmed by the EU Council and Parliament.
For sustainable forestry, there are several well-known certifying bodies such as Forest
Stewardship Council and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification.
Nevertheless, there are many countries where certification remains sparce. For sustainable
soy from Latin America, the Round Table on Responsible Soy is the best-known certifying
organisation.
An open source that provides information on the risk of deforestation by country for
four commodities including timber, palm, and soy is the non-profit Preferred by Nature
platform [29].
Biodiversity is a broad and evolving topic. Certain aspects like the trade and use of
essential oils from endangered species have been managed through the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) certification
for many years. For the fragrance industry, the most emblematic concerned ingredients are
guaiac wood oil (Guaiacum officinale (Plante)) and agarwood oil (Aquilaria malaccensis
(Plante)). Another source of information concerning endangered species is the International
Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species where Endangered and
Critically Endangered categories are most relevant. There is overlap with CITES (Guaiac
wood is Endangered and Agarwood is Critically Endangered) but it is broader in scope and
not designed for trade.