402 JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE
(12) Damien F, Boncheva M. The extent of orthorhombic lipid phases in the stratum corneum determines
the barrier efficiency of human skin in vivo. J Invest Dermatol. 2010 130(2):611–614. doi:10.1038/
jid.2009.272
(13) Drutis DM, Hancewicz TM, Pashkovski E, et al. Three-dimensional chemical imaging of skin using
stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. J Biomed Opt. 2014 19(11):111604.doi:10.1117/1.JBO.19.11.111604
(14) Michaels AS, Chandraksekaren SK, Shaw JE. Drug permeation through human skin: theory and in vitro
experimental measurement. AIChE 1975(21):985–996.
(15) Voegeli R, Rawlings AV. Moisturizing at a molecular level – the basis of Corneocare. Int J Cosmet Sci.
2023 45(2):133–154. doi:10.1111/ics.12832
(16) Forslind B. A domain mosaic model of the skin barrier. Acta Derm Venereol. 1994 74(1):1–6. doi:10.2340/​
000155557416
(17) Bouwstra JA, Honeywell-Nguyen PL, Gooris GS, Ponec M. Structure of the skin barrier and its modulation
by vesicular formulations. Prog Lipid Res. 2003 42(1):1–36. doi:10.1016/s0163-7827(02)00028-0
(18) Norlén L. Skin barrier structure and function: the single gel phase model. J Invest Dermatol. 2001 117(4):​
830–836. doi:10.1038/jid.2001.1
(19) Suzuki M, Ohno Y, Kihara A. Whole picture of human stratum corneum ceramides, including the
chain-length diversity of long-chain bases. J Lipid Res. 2022 63(7):100235. doi:10.1016/j.jlr.2022.100235
(20) Norlén L, Nicander I, Lundsjö A, Cronholm T, Forslind B. A new HPLC-based method for the
quantitative analysis of inner stratum corneum lipids with special reference to the free fatty acid fraction.
Arch Dermatol Res. 1998 290(9):508–516. doi:10.1007/s004030050344
(21) Pilgram GS, Engelsma-van Pelt AM, Bouwstra JA, Koerten HK. Electron diffraction provides new
information on human stratum corneum lipid organization studied in relation to depth and temperature.
J Invest Dermatol. 1999 113(3):403–409. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00706.x.
(22) Bommannan D, Potts RO, Guy RH. Examination of stratum corneum barrier function in vivo by
infrared spectroscopy. J Invest Dermatol. 1990 95(4):403–408. doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12555503.
(23) Yarovoy Y, Drutis DM, Hancewicz TM, Garczarek U, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Misra M.
Quantification of Lipid Phase Order of In Vivo Human Skin Using Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier
Transform Infrared (ATR FT-IR) Spectroscopy and Multivariate Curve Resolution Analysis. Appl
Spectrosc. 2019 73(2):182–194. doi:10.1177/0003702818812738.
(24) Abbas S, Goldberg JW, Massaro M. Personal cleanser technology and clinical performance. Dermatol
Ther. 2004 17(suppl 1):35–42. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1004.x
(25) Frosch PJ, Kligman AM. The soap chamber test. A new method for assessing the irritancy of soaps. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 1979 1(1):35–41. doi:10.1016/s0190-9622(79)70001-6
(26) Sharko PT, Murahata RI, Leyden JJ, Grove GL. Arm wash evaluation with instrumental evaluation: a
sensitive technique for differentiating the irritation potential of personal wash products. J Derm Clin Eval
Soc. 1991:19–26.
(27) Ertel KD, Keswick BH, Bryant PB. A forearm controlled application technique for estimating the
relative mildness of personal cleansing products. J Soc Cosmet Chem. 1995 46:67–76.
(28) Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Moore DJ, Subramanyan K, Misra M, Meyer F. Cleansing without
compromise: the impact of cleansers on the skin barrier and the technology of mild cleansing. Dermatol
Ther. 2004 17(suppl 1):16–25. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1002.x
(29) Rhein LD, Robbins CR, Kernee K, Cantore R. Surfactant structure effects on swelling of isolated human
stratum corneum. J Soc Cosmet Chem. 1986 37:125–139.
(30) Wilhelm KP, Cua AB, Wolff HH, Maibach HI. Surfactant-induced stratum corneum hydration in vivo:
prediction of the irritation potential of anionic surfactants. J Invest Dermatol. 1993 101(3):310–315.
doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12365467.
(31) Rhein LD. In-vitro interactions: biochemical and biophysical effects of surfactants on skin. In: Rieger
MM, Rhein LD, eds. Surfactants in Cosmetics. Surfactant Science Series. Marcel Dekker 1997:397–425.
403 The Human Stratum Corneum
(32) Imokawa G, Akasaki S, Minematsu Y, Kawai M. Importance of intercellular lipids in water-retention
properties of the stratum corneum: induction and recovery study of surfactant dry skin. Arch Dermatol
Res. 1989 281(1):45–51. doi:10.1007/BF00424272
(33) Imokawa G. Surfactant-Induced Depletion of Ceramides and Other Intercellular Lipids: implication
for the Mechanism Leading to Dehydration of the Stratum corneum. Exog Dermatol. 2004 3(2):81–98.
doi:10.1159/000086158
(34) Lips A, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Vethamuthu M, et al. Role of surfactant micelle charge in protein
denaturation and surfactant induced skin irritation. In: Rhein LD, Schlossman M, O’Lenick A,
Somasundaran P, eds. Surfactants in Personal Care Products and Decorative Cosmetics. 3rd ed. CRC Press
2006:177–187.
(35) Dillarstone A, Paye M. Antagonism in concentrated surfactant systems. Contact Dermatitis. 1993 28(3):198.
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03398.x
(36) Endo K, Ozawa T, Masui T, et al. Advantage of sodium polyoxyethylene lauryl ether carboxylate as a mild
cleansing agent. Part 2: Effects on skin functions and conditions. J Surfact &Detergents. 2018 21(6):777–788.
doi:10.1002/jsde.12177
(37) Piérard GE, Goffin V, Piérard-Franchimont C. Corneosurfametry: a predictive assessment of the interaction
of personal-care cleansing products with human stratum corneum. Dermatology. 1994 189(2):152–156.
doi:10.1159/000246820
(38) Liu M, Mollica L, Regan J, et al. Modified Corneosurfametry as a new accelerated high-throughput ex
vivo methodology for predicting cleanser effects towards human skin. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2016 38(2):178–
186. doi:10.1111/ics.12273
(39) Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Subramanyan K, Nole G. Moisturizing cleansers. In: Marie L, Howard M,
eds. Dry Skin and Moisturizers. 2nd ed. Taylor &Francis Group 2005:405–428.
(40) Purohit P, Chandar P, Vilinska A, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Somasundaran P. Effect of mixed
surfactants on stratum corneum: a drying stress and Raman spectroscopy study. Int J Cosmet Sci.
2014 36(4):379–385. doi:10.1111/ics.12139
(41) German GK, Pashkovski E, Dufresne ER. Surfactant treatments influence drying mechanics in human
stratum corneum. J Biomech. 2013 46(13):2145–2151. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.07.003
(42) Liu X, German GK. Measuring and modeling contractile drying in human stratum corneum. J Vis Exp.
2017 (121):e55336, 1–6. doi:10.3791/55336
(43) Bernhofer LP, Barkovic S, Appa Y, Martin KM. IL-1alpha and IL-1ra secretion from epidermal
equivalents and the prediction of the irritation potential of mild soap and surfactant-based consumer
products. Toxicol In Vitro. 1999 13(2):231–239. doi:10.1016/s0887-2333(98)00088-5.
(44) Perkins MA, Osborne R, Rana FR, A, Ghassemi, Robinson MK. Comparison of in-vitro and in-vivo
human response to consumer products and ingredients with a range of irritation potential, Tox. Sciences.
1999 48:218–229.
(45) Walters RM, Gandolfi L, Mack MC, et al. In vitro assessment of skin irritation potential of surfactant-
based formulations by using a 3-D skin reconstructed tissue model and cytokine response. Altern Lab
Anim. 2016 44(6):523–532. doi:10.1177/026119291604400611.
(46) Morris SAV, Thompson RT, Glenn RW, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Kasting GB. Mechanisms of anionic
surfactant penetration into human skin: investigating monomer, micelle and submicellar aggregate
penetration theories. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2019 41(1):55–66. doi:10.1111/ics.12511
(47) Morris SAV, Kasting GB, Ananthapadmanabhan KP. Surfactant equilibria and its impact on penetration
into stratum corneum. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci. 2022 59:101579. doi:10.1016/j.cocis.2022.101579
(48) de la Maza A, Coderch L, Lopez O, Baucells J, Parra JL. Permeability changes caused by surfactants
in liposomes that model the stratum corneum lipid composition. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1997 74(1):1–8.
doi:10.1007/s11746-997-0111-3
(49) Froebe CL, Simion FA, Rhein LD, Cagan RH, Kligman A. Stratum corneum lipid removal by surfactants:
relation to in vivo irritation. Dermatologica. 1990 181(4):277–283. doi:10.1159/000247822
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402 JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE
(12) Damien F, Boncheva M. The extent of orthorhombic lipid phases in the stratum corneum determines
the barrier efficiency of human skin in vivo. J Invest Dermatol. 2010 130(2):611–614. doi:10.1038/
jid.2009.272
(13) Drutis DM, Hancewicz TM, Pashkovski E, et al. Three-dimensional chemical imaging of skin using
stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. J Biomed Opt. 2014 19(11):111604.doi:10.1117/1.JBO.19.11.111604
(14) Michaels AS, Chandraksekaren SK, Shaw JE. Drug permeation through human skin: theory and in vitro
experimental measurement. AIChE 1975(21):985–996.
(15) Voegeli R, Rawlings AV. Moisturizing at a molecular level – the basis of Corneocare. Int J Cosmet Sci.
2023 45(2):133–154. doi:10.1111/ics.12832
(16) Forslind B. A domain mosaic model of the skin barrier. Acta Derm Venereol. 1994 74(1):1–6. doi:10.2340/​
000155557416
(17) Bouwstra JA, Honeywell-Nguyen PL, Gooris GS, Ponec M. Structure of the skin barrier and its modulation
by vesicular formulations. Prog Lipid Res. 2003 42(1):1–36. doi:10.1016/s0163-7827(02)00028-0
(18) Norlén L. Skin barrier structure and function: the single gel phase model. J Invest Dermatol. 2001 117(4):​
830–836. doi:10.1038/jid.2001.1
(19) Suzuki M, Ohno Y, Kihara A. Whole picture of human stratum corneum ceramides, including the
chain-length diversity of long-chain bases. J Lipid Res. 2022 63(7):100235. doi:10.1016/j.jlr.2022.100235
(20) Norlén L, Nicander I, Lundsjö A, Cronholm T, Forslind B. A new HPLC-based method for the
quantitative analysis of inner stratum corneum lipids with special reference to the free fatty acid fraction.
Arch Dermatol Res. 1998 290(9):508–516. doi:10.1007/s004030050344
(21) Pilgram GS, Engelsma-van Pelt AM, Bouwstra JA, Koerten HK. Electron diffraction provides new
information on human stratum corneum lipid organization studied in relation to depth and temperature.
J Invest Dermatol. 1999 113(3):403–409. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00706.x.
(22) Bommannan D, Potts RO, Guy RH. Examination of stratum corneum barrier function in vivo by
infrared spectroscopy. J Invest Dermatol. 1990 95(4):403–408. doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12555503.
(23) Yarovoy Y, Drutis DM, Hancewicz TM, Garczarek U, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Misra M.
Quantification of Lipid Phase Order of In Vivo Human Skin Using Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier
Transform Infrared (ATR FT-IR) Spectroscopy and Multivariate Curve Resolution Analysis. Appl
Spectrosc. 2019 73(2):182–194. doi:10.1177/0003702818812738.
(24) Abbas S, Goldberg JW, Massaro M. Personal cleanser technology and clinical performance. Dermatol
Ther. 2004 17(suppl 1):35–42. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1004.x
(25) Frosch PJ, Kligman AM. The soap chamber test. A new method for assessing the irritancy of soaps. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 1979 1(1):35–41. doi:10.1016/s0190-9622(79)70001-6
(26) Sharko PT, Murahata RI, Leyden JJ, Grove GL. Arm wash evaluation with instrumental evaluation: a
sensitive technique for differentiating the irritation potential of personal wash products. J Derm Clin Eval
Soc. 1991:19–26.
(27) Ertel KD, Keswick BH, Bryant PB. A forearm controlled application technique for estimating the
relative mildness of personal cleansing products. J Soc Cosmet Chem. 1995 46:67–76.
(28) Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Moore DJ, Subramanyan K, Misra M, Meyer F. Cleansing without
compromise: the impact of cleansers on the skin barrier and the technology of mild cleansing. Dermatol
Ther. 2004 17(suppl 1):16–25. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1002.x
(29) Rhein LD, Robbins CR, Kernee K, Cantore R. Surfactant structure effects on swelling of isolated human
stratum corneum. J Soc Cosmet Chem. 1986 37:125–139.
(30) Wilhelm KP, Cua AB, Wolff HH, Maibach HI. Surfactant-induced stratum corneum hydration in vivo:
prediction of the irritation potential of anionic surfactants. J Invest Dermatol. 1993 101(3):310–315.
doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12365467.
(31) Rhein LD. In-vitro interactions: biochemical and biophysical effects of surfactants on skin. In: Rieger
MM, Rhein LD, eds. Surfactants in Cosmetics. Surfactant Science Series. Marcel Dekker 1997:397–425.
403 The Human Stratum Corneum
(32) Imokawa G, Akasaki S, Minematsu Y, Kawai M. Importance of intercellular lipids in water-retention
properties of the stratum corneum: induction and recovery study of surfactant dry skin. Arch Dermatol
Res. 1989 281(1):45–51. doi:10.1007/BF00424272
(33) Imokawa G. Surfactant-Induced Depletion of Ceramides and Other Intercellular Lipids: implication
for the Mechanism Leading to Dehydration of the Stratum corneum. Exog Dermatol. 2004 3(2):81–98.
doi:10.1159/000086158
(34) Lips A, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Vethamuthu M, et al. Role of surfactant micelle charge in protein
denaturation and surfactant induced skin irritation. In: Rhein LD, Schlossman M, O’Lenick A,
Somasundaran P, eds. Surfactants in Personal Care Products and Decorative Cosmetics. 3rd ed. CRC Press
2006:177–187.
(35) Dillarstone A, Paye M. Antagonism in concentrated surfactant systems. Contact Dermatitis. 1993 28(3):198.
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03398.x
(36) Endo K, Ozawa T, Masui T, et al. Advantage of sodium polyoxyethylene lauryl ether carboxylate as a mild
cleansing agent. Part 2: Effects on skin functions and conditions. J Surfact &Detergents. 2018 21(6):777–788.
doi:10.1002/jsde.12177
(37) Piérard GE, Goffin V, Piérard-Franchimont C. Corneosurfametry: a predictive assessment of the interaction
of personal-care cleansing products with human stratum corneum. Dermatology. 1994 189(2):152–156.
doi:10.1159/000246820
(38) Liu M, Mollica L, Regan J, et al. Modified Corneosurfametry as a new accelerated high-throughput ex
vivo methodology for predicting cleanser effects towards human skin. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2016 38(2):178–
186. doi:10.1111/ics.12273
(39) Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Subramanyan K, Nole G. Moisturizing cleansers. In: Marie L, Howard M,
eds. Dry Skin and Moisturizers. 2nd ed. Taylor &Francis Group 2005:405–428.
(40) Purohit P, Chandar P, Vilinska A, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Somasundaran P. Effect of mixed
surfactants on stratum corneum: a drying stress and Raman spectroscopy study. Int J Cosmet Sci.
2014 36(4):379–385. doi:10.1111/ics.12139
(41) German GK, Pashkovski E, Dufresne ER. Surfactant treatments influence drying mechanics in human
stratum corneum. J Biomech. 2013 46(13):2145–2151. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.07.003
(42) Liu X, German GK. Measuring and modeling contractile drying in human stratum corneum. J Vis Exp.
2017 (121):e55336, 1–6. doi:10.3791/55336
(43) Bernhofer LP, Barkovic S, Appa Y, Martin KM. IL-1alpha and IL-1ra secretion from epidermal
equivalents and the prediction of the irritation potential of mild soap and surfactant-based consumer
products. Toxicol In Vitro. 1999 13(2):231–239. doi:10.1016/s0887-2333(98)00088-5.
(44) Perkins MA, Osborne R, Rana FR, A, Ghassemi, Robinson MK. Comparison of in-vitro and in-vivo
human response to consumer products and ingredients with a range of irritation potential, Tox. Sciences.
1999 48:218–229.
(45) Walters RM, Gandolfi L, Mack MC, et al. In vitro assessment of skin irritation potential of surfactant-
based formulations by using a 3-D skin reconstructed tissue model and cytokine response. Altern Lab
Anim. 2016 44(6):523–532. doi:10.1177/026119291604400611.
(46) Morris SAV, Thompson RT, Glenn RW, Ananthapadmanabhan KP, Kasting GB. Mechanisms of anionic
surfactant penetration into human skin: investigating monomer, micelle and submicellar aggregate
penetration theories. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2019 41(1):55–66. doi:10.1111/ics.12511
(47) Morris SAV, Kasting GB, Ananthapadmanabhan KP. Surfactant equilibria and its impact on penetration
into stratum corneum. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci. 2022 59:101579. doi:10.1016/j.cocis.2022.101579
(48) de la Maza A, Coderch L, Lopez O, Baucells J, Parra JL. Permeability changes caused by surfactants
in liposomes that model the stratum corneum lipid composition. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1997 74(1):1–8.
doi:10.1007/s11746-997-0111-3
(49) Froebe CL, Simion FA, Rhein LD, Cagan RH, Kligman A. Stratum corneum lipid removal by surfactants:
relation to in vivo irritation. Dermatologica. 1990 181(4):277–283. doi:10.1159/000247822

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