348 JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE
TEWL with age on most body sites (Table 1 and Akdeniz et al.77) but while statistically
significant the observed TEWL reductions may not be clinically relevant as pointed out
above. It also appears that the immediate response of the SC barrier to applied irritants is
not greater in older skin.
One result that is likely to be of clinical significance is the significantly reduced rate of SC
barrier repair after disruption reported by Ghadially et al.85 This effect is possibly due to
the reduced turnover rate of the SC24,56 as discussed above. So, while the SC barrier may not
be easier to disrupt in elderly skin it is slower to heal once disrupted.
While the tendency of older subjects to develop dry skin is well known, the source of this
problem is not yet completely clear and deserves further study.
REFERENCES
(1) Lavker RM, Zheng PS, Dong G. Morphology of aged skin. Clin Geriatr Med. 1989 5:53–67.
(2) Gilchrest BA. Skin aging and photoaging: an overview. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1989 21:610–613.
(3) Kohl E, Steinbauer J, Landthaler M, Szeimies RM. Skin ageing. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol.
2011 25:873–884.
(4) Wickett RR, Tate M. Part 3.2.4 Compromised Skin in the Elderly. In: Rosen M, ed. Harry’s Cosmeticology.
9th ed. Volume 1. Gloucester, MA: Chemical Publishing Company Inc 2015:282–328.
(5) Madison KC. Barrier function of the skin: “la raison d’être” of the epidermis. J Invest Dermatol.
2003 121:231–241.
(6) Elias PM, Choi EH. Interactions among stratum corneum defensive functions. Exp Dermatol.
2005 14:719–726.
(7) Elias PM. Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation. J Invest Dermatol. 1983 80:44–50.
(8) Talreja P, Kleene N, Pickens W, Wang T, Kasting G. Visualization of the lipid barrier and measurement
of lipid pathlength in human stratum corneum. AAPS PharmSci J. 2001 3
(9) Harding CR. The stratum corneum: structure and function in health and disease. Dermatol Ther. 2004 17
Suppl 1:6–15.
(10) Odland GF. Structure of the skin. In: Goldsmith LA, ed. Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of
the Skin. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press 1991:3–62.
(11) Odland GF. A submicroscopic granular component in human epidermis. J Invest Dermatol. 1960 34:11–15.
(12) Oashi M, Sawada Y, Makita R. Odland body and intercellular substances. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl
(Stockh). 1973 73:47–54.
(13) Elias PM, Grayson MA, Lampe MA, Williams ML, Brown BE. The Intercorneocyte Space. In: Marks R,
Plewig G, eds. Stratum Corneum. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag 1983:53–67.
(14) Elias PM, Menon GK. Structural and lipid biochemical correlates of the epidermal permeability barrier.
Adv Lipid Res. 1991 24:1–26.
(15) Wertz PW, Downing DT. Glycolipids in mammalian epidermis: structure and function in the water
barrier. Science. 1982 217:1261–1262.
(16) Steinert PM, North AC, Parry DA. Structural features of keratin intermediate filaments. J Invest
Dermatol. 1994 103:19S–24S.
(17) Dale BA, Holbrook KA, Kimball JR, Hoff M, Sun TT. Expression of epidermal keratins and filaggrin
during human fetal skin development. J Cell Biol. 1985 101:1257–1269.
(18) Dale BA, Presland RB, Lewis SP, Underwood RA, Fleckman P. Transient expression of epidermal
filaggrin in cultured cells causes collapse of intermediate filament networks with alteration of cell shape
and nuclear integrity. J Invest Dermatol. 1997 108:179–187.

349 Aging Skin Barrier
(19) Dale BA, Resing KA, Lonsdale-Eccles JD. Filaggrin: a keratin filament associated protein. Ann N Y
Acad Sci. 1985 455:330–342.
(20) Kalinin A, Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Assembly of the epidermal cornified cell envelope. J Cell Sci.
2001 114:3069–3070.
(21) Candi E, Oddi S, Terrinoni A, et al. Transglutaminase 5 cross-links loricrin, involucrin, and small
proline-rich proteins in vitro. J Biol Chem. 2001 276:35014–35023.
(22) Candi E, Schmidt R, Melino G. The cornified envelope: a model of cell death in the skin. Nat Rev Mol
Cell Biol. 2005 6:328–340.
(23) Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Ceramides are bound to structural proteins of the human foreskin epidermal
cornified cell envelope. J Biol Chem. 1998 273:17763–17770.
(24) Grove GL, Kligman AM. Age-associated changes in human epidermal cell renewal. J Gerontol.
1983 38:137–142.
(25) Leveque JL, Corcuff P de, Agache P. In vivo studies of the evolution of physical properties of the human
skin with age. Int J Dermatol. 1984 23:322–329.
(26) Marks R, Barton SP. The significance of the size and shape of corneocytes. In: Marks R, Plewig G, eds.
Stratum Corneum. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag 1983:161–170.
(27) Rougier A, Lotte C, Corcuff P, Maibach HI. Relationship between skin permeability and corneocyte size
according to anatomic site, age, and sex in man. J Soc Cosmet Chem. 1988 39:15–26.
(28) Plewig G, Scheuber E, Reuter B, Waidelich W. Thickness of corneocytes. In: Marks R, Plewig G, eds.
Stratum Corneum. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag 1983:171–174.
(29) Wertz PW, Madison KC, Downing DT. Covalently bound lipids of human stratum corneum. J Invest
Dermatol. 1989 92:109–111.
(30) Wertz PW, Swartzendruber DC, Kitko DJ, Madison KC, Downing DT. The role of the corneocyte lipid
envelopes in cohesion of the stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol. 1989 93:169–172.
(31) Nachat R, Mechin MC, Takahara H, et al. Peptidylarginine deiminase isoforms 1–3 are expressed in the
epidermis and involved in the deimination of K1 and filaggrin. J Invest Dermatol. 2005 124:384–393.
(32) Scott IR, Harding CR. Filaggrin breakdown to water binding compounds during development of the rat
stratum corneum is controlled by the water activity of the environment. Dev Biol. 1986 115:84–92.
(33) Scott IR, Harding CR, Barrett JG. Histidine-rich protein of the keratohyalin granules. Source of the free
amino acids, urocanic acid and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid in the stratum corneum. Biochim Biophys Acta.
1982 719:110–117.
(34) Rawlings AV, Matts PJ. Stratum corneum moisturization at the molecular level: an update in relation to
the dry skin cycle. J Invest Dermatol. 2005 124:1099–1110.
(35) Rawlings AV, Scott IR, Harding CR, Bowser PA. Stratum corneum moisturization at the molecular
level. J Invest Dermatol. 1994 103:731–741.
(36) Kamata Y, Taniguchi A, Yamamoto M, et al. Neutral cysteine protease bleomycin hydrolase is essential
for the breakdown of deiminated filaggrin into amino acids. J Biol Chem. 2009 284:12829–12836.
(37) Spier HW, Pascher G. Analytical and functional physiology of the skin surface. Hautarzt. 1956 7:55–60.
(38) Cler EJ, Fourtanier A. L’acide purrolidone caboxylique (PCA) et la peau. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1981 3:101–106.
(39) Marty JP. NMF and cosmetology of cutaneous hydration. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 2002 129:131–136.
(40) Harding CR, Aho S, Bosko CA. Filaggrin – revisited. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2013 35:412–423.
(41) Jokura Y, Ishikawa S, Tokuda H, Imokawa G. Molecular analysis of elastic properties of the
stratum corneum by solid-state 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Invest Dermatol.
1995 104:806–812.
(42) Nakagawa N, Sakai S, Matsumoto M, et al. Relationship between NMF (lactate and potassium) content and
the physical properties of the stratum corneum in healthy subjects. J Invest Dermatol. 2004 122:755–763.
(43) Yamamura T, Tezuka T. The water-holding capacity of the stratum corneum measured by 1H-NMR. J
Invest Dermatol. 1989 93:160–164.